Ethical Animal Research? Scientist and Veterinarian Explain 4 R's of Care

A proposed measure in Switzerland would have made that country the first to ban medical and scientific experimentation on animals. It failed to pass in February 2022, with only 21 per cent of voters in favour. Yet globally, including in the United States, there is concern about whether animal research is ethical.

We are scientists who support ethical animal research that reduces suffering of humans and animals alike by helping researchers discover the causes of disease and how to treat it.

One of us is a neuroscientist who studies behavioral treatments and medications for people with post-traumatic stress disorder - treatments made possible by research with dogs and rodents. The other is a veterinarian who cares for laboratory animals in research studies and trains researchers on how to interact with their subjects.

We both place high importance on ensuring that animal research is conducted ethically and humanely. But what counts as "ethical" animal research in the first place?

There is no single standard definition of ethical animal research. However, it broadly means the humane care of research animals - from their acquisition and housing to the study experience itself.

Federal research agencies follow guiding principles in evaluating the use and care of animals in research. One is that the research must increase knowledge and, either directly or indirectly, have the potential to benefit the health and welfare of humans and other animals.

Researchers must use procedures that minimize pain and distress and maximize the animals' welfare. They are also asked to consider whether they could use nonanimal alternatives instead, such as mathematical models or computer simulations.

These principles are summarized by the "3 R's" of animal research: reduction, refinement and replacement. The 3 R's encourage scientists to develop new techniques that allow them to replace animals with appropriate alternatives.

Since these guidelines were first disseminated in the early 1960s, new tools have helped to significantly decrease animal research. In fact, since 1985, the number of animals in research has been reduced by half.

A fourth "R" was formalized in the late 1990s: rehabilitation, referring to care for animals after their role in research is complete.

These guidelines are designed to ensure that researchers and regulators consider the costs and benefits of using animals in research, focused on the good it could provide for many more animals and humans.

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Study to look at separation anxiety in dogs

Some dogs become stressed when they are left on their own and may display unwanted and sometimes destructive behaviours as a result. Separation anxiety can develop in dogs for a number of reasons and owner’s staying at home more during the pandemic is thought to have exacerbated the issue.

Participation in the research would involve dog owners having a diffuser type device in their home for up to eight weeks, with a researcher visiting every fortnight to carry out in-house observations.

Ilana Kelland, Specialist Technician in the School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, who is leading the study, said: "Some dogs can find being left on their own an overwhelming and stressful experience. Our study is hoping to find out if the pheromone diffuser being used in a home environment can ease separation anxiety in dogs."

Stephanie Miller, who is participating in the study with her dog, Cyril, added: "I jumped at the chance to take part in the study as Cyril has had separation anxiety since he was a puppy. Although I have tried lots of things to help him he can't be left alone as he gets very distressed.

"The researchers have clearly explained every step of the study and we’ve enjoyed taking part in the research project. It's also a great opportunity to be involved in research that could potentially help other dogs and their owners too."

To be eligible to take part in the study, dogs and their owners should be:Dog must be over the age of 18 months
Live in a single dog household
Dog owner should be able and willing to leave their dog alone in one room in the house for a 20-minute separation test
Live in a home environment without the presence of any calming pheromones or supplements
Must have owned their dog for over a year
Dog is clinically healthy
Dog is not receiving pharmacological treatment with psychoactive drugs
Female dogs must not be in season or pregnant

By taking part in the research study, participants will receive up to £80 for their time (£10 per week). Participants will have the right to withdraw from the study at any point.

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Dogs get teary eyed when reunited with owners

A wagging tail, soft and relaxed eyes, slurpy licks, and a body wiggle to show the belly may be some telltale signs of a happy dog. But now new research, published in the journal Current Biology, suggests that dogs can also cry happy tears when they meet their owners.

“Tear volume (in dogs) increased significantly during reunion with the owner, but not with a familiar non-owner,” the researchers said.

The research team used the Schirmer Tear Test (STT), which reveals the amount of watery tear production in each eye, to arrive at their results.

First tear volume of 18 dogs was measured using the STT in their normal home environment with the owner. The same test was conducted on dogs within the first five minutes of their owners after a separation of five to seven hours. Tear volume for reunion with familiar non-owners was also measured.

“Following separation from the owner in the dogs’ day care centres, dogs secreted larger tear volumes during reunions with their owners than with familiar non-owners, and tear volume during reunion with the owner was significantly greater than the baseline tear volume,” the study noted.

This welling-up of the eyes is attributed to the “bonding hormone” oxytocin.

The research team has also hypothesized that teary-eyed dogs might receive better care from their human owners.

However, it is not yet known if dogs produce tears when they experience negative emotions. Further, the team also did not look at whether dogs make tears when they get back together with other dogs.

The authors of the study, meanwhile, said that this is “the first report on positive emotion stimulating tear secretion in a non-human animal”, adding that no previous studies have “investigated the relationship between emotional arousal and tear volume in animals”.

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Spotlights in AVMA Journals Showcase Purdue Veterinary Education and Research

As part of a series of feature articles, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) is highlighting education and research at the Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine in articles published recently in JAVMA (Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association) and AJVR (American Journal of Veterinary Research). The journals introduced “Spotlight” in July as a new regular feature that each month highlights several colleges of veterinary medicine accredited by the Council on Education. Purdue Veterinary Medicine was chosen to be featured in the March 2023 issues of the two journals.

The article on Purdue veterinary education in JAVMA carries the subtitle, “Purdue’s Legacy of Leading in Graduating Career Ready Veterinarians.” It explains that graduating practice-ready veterinarians who have the foundation to pursue any veterinary career path they choose, is a hallmark of the college. The article goes on to detail how, with advanced technology, new and innovative approaches to learning, and state-of-the-art facilities, that trait is stronger now than ever.

The spotlight feature on the college’s animal health research published in AJVR is subtitled, “Purdue’s Comparative Approach to Advancing Animal Health.” The article emphasizes that, “since its opening in 1959, the college has built an enduring legacy of research that seeks to improve the understanding and treatment of animal diseases while also advancing human medicine.” The feature then gives examples of the college’s areas of research, including comparative oncology and equine sports medicine.

The Spotlight series articles are written by authors at each college, working with an editorial team. The Purdue articles were written by Kevin Doerr, director of public affairs and communications, who worked with the editorial committee of Dr. S. Kathleen Salisbury, associate dean for academic affairs; Dr. Harm HogenEsch, associate dean for research; Dr. Sandra San Miguel, associate dean for engagement; and Dean Willie Reed. The articles had to meet strict manuscript standards, including limits on word counts and images, in order to be accepted for publication.

Click here to view the article in JAVMA. Click here to view the AJVR article. The Spotlight feature series is one of a number of innovations and changes that have been implemented in the journals by Dr. Lisa Fortier, editor-in-chief of JAVMA and AJVR and AVMA division director of publications. Dr. Fortier said the idea behind the series is to give all of the colleges the opportunity to share their innovations in the clinical preparation of the next generation of veterinarians, as well as their novel research programs that are significantly impacting animal health or welfare. The journals now boast circulation to over 100,000 readers.

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One Medicine: how human and veterinary medicine can benefit each other

Please can you introduce yourself, tell us about your professional background, and your role at Humanimal Trust?

I graduated in 1995 and then studied for a postgraduate degree in veterinary microbiology at the Royal Veterinary College (University of London). In 1996, I moved to the government's Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA) to undertake a Ph.D. on the pathogenesis of E. coli in poultry. Upon completing my Ph.D. studies, I commenced a post-doctoral position at Royal Holloway, University of London, studying E. coli virulence factors and vaccine development.

Since 2001, my work has focused largely on understanding the pathogenesis of zoonotic bacterial pathogens to develop control strategies. I have led several commercial, Defra, research councils (BBSRC, MRC, EPSRC, AHRC, Innovate) and EU projects in this area.

My current research interests focus on the pathogenesis of food-borne pathogens with a particular interest in Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and the development of intervention strategies, including vaccines, rapid diagnostic, pre, and probiotics. I have published over 190 papers in the area of host-microbe interaction, with a particular emphasis on E. coli, Salmonella, vaccines, probiotics, and AMR.

In 2005, I was appointed Head of Pathogenesis and Control at the AHVLA, and in 2010, I was appointed Professor of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology at the University of Surrey. I gained the FRCPath in 2010, and in 2012, I was appointed the Associate Dean for Veterinary Strategy in the new School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Surrey. In 2014, I was appointed to the position of Head of the Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases and Director of the Veterinary Pathology Centre. In 2019 I was appointed Deputy Head of the School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Surrey, and then in 2021, I was appointed Head of the School of Biosciences and Medicine.

I am the past president of the Med-Vet-Net Association and the Veterinary Research Club, the current Chair of Humanimal Trust, a member of the FSA ACMSF AMR sub-committee, a Trustee of the Houghton Trust, a member of the APHA Science Advisory Board and Chair of the Royal College of Pathologists Veterinary Pathology SAC. I am an Associate member of the European College of Veterinary Microbiology, and in 2020, I was awarded an Honorary Associateship of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.

Humanimal Trust is a unique organization. Please could you tell us about the organization’s origin, purpose, and values?


Humanimal Trust is the only organization in the UK with the sole and specific purpose of progressing One Medicine.

It was founded in May 2014 by world-renowned orthopedic-neuro veterinary surgeon Professor Noel Fitzpatrick - otherwise known as the TV Supervet. As a vet, Noel Fitzpatrick experienced personally the deep divide between human and animal medicine and saw how unfair this was.


Frustrated by the lack of opportunities to share what he was learning from veterinary practice or to benefit from relevant learning from human medicine, he decided to create the platform himself. This laid the foundations for the work Humanimal Trust does today, removing barriers and seeking to close the divide between human and animal medicine.

Our five areas of work spell out I-CARE, which sums up the way we feel, our supporters feel, and we hope everybody will one day feel about One Medicine:Influence – we care about bringing together everyone who cares about One Medicine to create a road map for change in public policy, education, and at the clinical coalface.
Collaboration – we care about creating opportunities for human and veterinary professionals and students to learn from one another (in person and virtually) by demonstrating One Medicine at work.
Awareness - we care that people should know and understand the benefits of One Medicine for humans and animals, about non-animal alternatives to laboratory models, and how much human and animal medicine can learn from one another’s clinical practice – saving time, money, and lives.
Research – we care about research – funding it, facilitating it, shouting about it – that could benefit humans and animals without using laboratory animal models.
Education – we care about learning – every child learning about the connections between humans and animals; veterinary and human medical students learning with and from one another; practitioners learning continuously from their peers.
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Cow Urine Unsuitable For Human Consumption, Contains At Least 14 Types Of Harmful Bacteria: Veterinary Research Body

Cow urine, which several people believe possesses miraculous properties, is unsuitable for direct human consumption, new research suggests. This is because it contains potentially harmful bacteria. The study describing the findings was conducted by the Bareilly-based ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI). This is India’s premier animal research body.

According to the new study, published in the online research website ResearchGate, buffalo urine is more effective on certain bacteria.

Some of the bacteria found in cow urine

Urine samples from healthy cows and bulls contained at least 14 types of harmful bacteria, an IANS report said, citing the study. These bacteria include Escherichia coli, a gram-negative bacteria which can cause diarrhoea, stomach pain, nausea and vomiting.

Quoting Bhoj Raj Singh, the lead researcher, the report said that statistical analysis of 73 urine samples of cows, buffaloes and humans suggests that antibacterial activity in buffalo urine was far more superior than that of cow urine. He explained that buffalo urine was significantly more effective on bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis and Erwinia rhapontici.Staphylococcus epidermidis can cause nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain, and result in bone infections. Erwinia rhapontici is a plant pathogen.

Singh said that the researchers collected urine samples of three types of cows: Sahiwal, Tharparkar and Vrindavani. 

According to the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH), Vrindavani is a composite breed developed by crossbreeding taurine dairy breeds with native indicine cattle, or humped cattle.

The study was conducted between June and November 2022. The findings indicate that a sizable proportion of urine samples from apparently healthy individuals carry potentially pathogenic bacteria. 

Singh also said that in no case can urine be recommended for human consumption, and that the team is conducting further research on whether distilled urine contains infectious bacteria, as claimed by some people.

Many Indian market suppliers sell cow urine without the FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) trademark.

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Cow urine not safe for humans, contains harmful bacteria: India's top Animal research institute

India's premier animal research body, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), has said that the Cow urine is not suitable for human consumption as it contains harmful bacteria

As per a TOI report, the study was conducted by Bareilly-based ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI). The urine samples of cows and bulls found at least 14 types of harmful bacteria, including Escherichia coli bacterium, commonly associated with stomach infections in humans.

The peer-reviewed study, led by Bhoj Raj Singh along with three PhD students, has been published in online research website, Researchgate. “Statistical analysis of 73 urine samples of cows, buffaloes, and humans suggest that antibacterial activity in buffalo urine was far more superior than cows. The urine of buffalo was significantly more effective on bacteria like S Epidermidis and E Rhapontici,” Bhoj Raj told TOI.

Conflicting the common belief, Bhoj said it cannot be generalised that cow urine has anti-bacterial properties. "The common belief, that cow urine is antibacterial, can’t be generalised. In no case can urine be recommended for human consumption. Some people say that distilled urine doesn’t have infectious bacteria. We are carrying further research on it,” he added.

The cow urine is easily available sold in the Indian market, including on e-commerce websites, without the food safety and standards authority of India (FSSAI) trademark.

Meanwhile, former director of IVRI, RS Chauhan, told TOI: “I have been researching cow urine for 25 years and we have found that distilled cow urine improves immunity of humans and helps against cancer and Covid. This particular research was not done on distilled urine samples which we recommend people to actually consume."

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Bulldog

The country of origin of a bulldog is from England and the United Kingdom. Bulldogs are even called British Bulldog and English bulldog. The average life span of a bulldog is 07 to 10 years. They have tiny nasal cavities and are sensitive to heat. Its height is about 12-16 inches. The weight of males ranges from 53-55 pounds and females 49-51 pounds. These types of dogs are grown as pets. They need exercise, like other dogs.

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German Shepherd

German Shepard got originated from Germany. This is a new breed of dog that originated in the year 1899. These are called as working dogs that are developed for herding sheep. A German dog has a lot of strength, obedient, intelligent, and very well trained. It is called the second-most popular breed of dog in the United States and fourth-most popular in the United Kingdom.

The breed height starts at 60-65 cm for males, and for females, height was 55-60 cm. They mostly observe in tan/black and red/black. They have a double coat. The outer layer sheds all around, and the thick undercoat is very dense. The life span of the German Shepard is 10.5 years.

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How canines capture your heart: scientists explain puppy dog eyes

In a project that has all the makings of a Roald Dahl classic, scientists have hit on an answer to the mystery of how man’s best friend got its puppy dog eyes.

The sad, imploring expression held such power over humans during 33,000 years of canine domestication that the preference for dogs that could pull off the look steered the evolution of their facial muscles, researchers have said.

The result is that dogs gradually acquired a new forehead muscle named the levator anguli oculi medialis, or LAOM, and have used it to deploy the doleful look to devastating effect ever since.

“They are very powerful animals in how they capture our hearts,” said Prof Bridget Waller, the director of the Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology at the University of Portsmouth. “We pay a lot of attention to faces, they are meaningful to us, and this expression makes dogs look juvenile and sad. It induces a nurturing response. It’s a cute factor.

To investigate how the look developed in dogs, the UK-US research team acquired wolf and dog cadavers from taxidermists and US state organisations and dissected their heads to compare the facial muscles. No animals were killed for the research.Dissections of six dogs – a chihuahua, a labrador, a bloodhound, a German shepherd, a Siberian husky and a mongrel – found all had the LAOM muscle. But in the four grey wolves studied, the muscle was missing, save for a few scant muscle fibres. Since all dogs are derived from wolves, the comparison suggests the LAOM arose in the domestication process.Only one other difference was noted in the head dissections. A muscle called the retractor anguli oculi lateralis (RAOL), which pulls the eyelids out towards the ears, was less prominent in wolves than dogs. The Siberian husky, one of the most ancient breeds, was the only dog found to lack the RAOL muscle, according to the report in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.After establishing that dogs and wolves have different muscles around the eyes, the researchers filmed the animals to see how their expressions varied. They filmed nine wolves in two different animal parks, and 27 dogs, mostly Staffordshire bull terriers, in shelters across the UK. The footage was reviewed by a trained specialist who was not told about the scientists’ hypothesis. The specialist recorded when the animals made the puppy dog eyes expression, and rated its intensity on a five-point scale.

Dogs pulled the doleful face far more frequently than wolves, but the most striking finding was the intensity of the expressions. While dogs and wolves both produced “low intensity” expressions, only dogs appear to have weaponised the look and achieved what the scientists classified as “high intensity expressions”.

The look has a real impact. In a previous study, Waller showed that the more dogs deployed the expression, the faster they were rehomed from shelters. In that regard, puppy dog eyes were more effective than tail wagging or the speed at which dogs bounded over to visiting humans.

Waller does not believe dogs originally produced the expression to win humans over. More likely, she said, is that animals that happened to deploy puppy dog eyes tapped into a response humans had evolved over millennia of living in large groups, where reading facial expressions was crucial.

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Feline Patient Populations

For the purpose of creating specific, individualized vaccination recommendations based on risk of exposure, the Task Force has identified and defined the following feline populations based on their environment and lifestyle. The guidelines begin by discussing pet cats and then discuss a number of feline populations that are considered to be at relatively high risk of infectious disease exposure—namely, shelter cats, trap-neuterreturn/ trap-neuter-release cats, cattery cats, and foster cats.

Pet Cats

Pet cats include any cat kept by human beings as a source of companionship and pleasure. Pet cats are further categorized by housing status (indoor, outdoor, or indoor-outdoor cats) and number of cats in the household (single-cat or larger multi-cat). Although these distinctions are important, the most significant issue to consider regarding vaccination of pet cats is the individual cat’s exposure risk and exposure frequency to other cats and feline infectious diseases. Even indoor cats from single-cat households will inevitably be exposed to other feline infectious pathogens in situations such as a veterinary clinic visit, contact with other cats entering the premises, or exposure to contaminated fomites introduced by human contact. Client education for owners of these patients should focus on risk of exposure to other cats rather than on where the cat eats, sleeps, or spends most of its time.

For high-risk, multi-cat households, the probability of infectious disease exposure and transmission is proportionate to the number or density of cats on the premises.³⁹ It is important to educate clients about the increased disease risks to this population of cats and to discuss increased owner responsibility to ensure appropriate preventive healthcare initiatives associated with housing many cats in a confined space.

Shelter Cats

These are cats living for indeterminate periods in centers for relinquished or lost animals.

Trap-Neuter-Return/Trap-Neuter-Release Cats

These are community or feral cats of either sex that live entirely separate from people and cannot safely be handled. Trap-neuter-release/trap-neuter- return cats may survive completely independently of humans, but some semiferal colonies receive support from individuals.

Cattery Cats

These cats are maintained in commercial facilities; for example, breeding or boarding facilities, and pet stores with a showcase model.

Foster Cats

Foster cats are kittens or adult cats temporarily housed for rescue, rehabilitation, and rehoming purposes. The most important consideration in a foster cat household is ensuring that the permanent population of the household is appropriately vaccinated to provide protection from disease exposure originating with foster cats.

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